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The Rhetoric
Aristotle

GROUP AND PUBLIC COMMUNICATION: PUBLIC RHETORIC

Chapter 22
 Public Rhetoric
Dramatism 
Chapter 22
 Public Rhetoric
Dramatism 

Chapter Outline 9th Edition

  1. Introduction.
    1. Aristotle was a student of Plato’s who disagreed with his mentor over the place of public speaking in Athenian life.
    2. Plato’s negative view of public speaking was based on his assessment of the Sophists.
    3. Aristotle saw rhetoric as a neutral tool with which one could accomplish either noble or fraudulent ends.
      1. Truth is inherently more acceptable than falsehood.
      2. Nonetheless, unscrupulous persuaders may fool an audience unless an ethical speaker uses all possible means of persuasion to counter the error.
      3. Speakers who neglect the art of rhetoric have only themselves to blame for failure. 
    4. Although Aristotle’s Politics and Ethics are polished, well-organized texts, the Rhetoric is a collection of lecture notes.
    5. Aristotle raised rhetoric to a science by systematically exploring the effects of the speaker, the speech, and the audience.
  2. Rhetoric: Making persuasion possible.
    1. For Aristotle, rhetoric was the discovery in each case of the available means of persuasion.
    2. In terms of speech situations, he focused on civic affairs.
      1. Forensic speaking renders just decisions considering actions of the past.
      2. Epideictic speaking considers praise and blame for the benefit of present day audiences.
      3. Deliberative speaking attempts to influence those who consider future policy.
    3. Aristotle classified rhetoric as the counterpart of dialectic.
      1. Dialectic is one-on-one conversation; rhetoric is one person addressing the many.
      2. Dialectic searches for truth; rhetoric demonstrates existing truth.
      3. Dialectic answers general philosophical questions; rhetoric addresses specific, practical ones.
      4. Dialectic deals with certainty; rhetoric considers probability.
  3. Rhetorical proof: Logos, ethos, and pathos.
    1. Persuasion can be artistic or inartistic.
      1. Inartistic or external proofs are those that the speaker does not create.
      2. Artistic or internal proofs are those that the speaker creates.
    2. The available means of persuasion are based on three kinds of proof.
      1. Logical proof (logos) comes from the line of argument in the speech.
      2. Ethical proof (ethos) is the way the speaker’s character is revealed through the message.
      3. Emotional proof (pathos) is the feeling the speech draws from the hearers. 
    3. Aristotle focused on two forms of logical proof—enthymeme and example.
      1. Enthymeme is the strongest of the proofs.
        1. An enthymeme is an incomplete syllogism.
        2. Typical enthymemes leave out the premise that is already accepted by the audience.
        3. Lloyd Bitzer notes that the audience helps construct the proof by supplying the missing premise.
        4. The enthymeme uses deductive logic—moving from global principle to specific truth.
      2. The example uses inductive reasoning—drawing a final conclusion from specific examples.
    4. Ethos emphasizes the speaker’s credibility, which is manifested in intelligence, character, and goodwill.
      1. Aristotle was primarily interested in how the speaker’s ethos is created in a speech.
      2. The assessment of intelligence is based on practical wisdom and shared values.
      3. Virtuous character has to do with the speaker’s image as a good and honest person.
      4. Goodwill is a positive judgment of the speaker’s intention toward the audience.
      5. Aristotle’s explication of ethos has held up well under scientific scrutiny.
    5. Although skeptical of the emotion-laden public oratory typical of his era, Aristotle attempted to help speakers use pathos ethically.
    6. Aristotle catalogued a series of opposite feelings, then explained the conditions under which each mood is experienced.
      1. Anger vs. mildness.
      2. Love or friendship vs. hatred.
      3. Fear vs. confidence.
      4. Indignation vs. pity.
      5. Admiration vs. envy.
  4. The five canons of rhetoric.
    1. Invention—in order to generate effective enthymemes and examples, speakers draw upon both specialized and general knowledge known as topics or topoi.
    2. Arrangement—Aristotle recommended a basic structure.
    3. Style—Aristotle emphasized the pedagogical effectiveness of metaphor.
    4. Memory—this component was emphasized by Roman teachers.
    5. Delivery—naturalness is persuasive.
  5. Ethical reflection: Aristotle’s golden mean.
    1. Aristotle’s work begs the question of the ethicality of altering a message to make it more acceptable to an audience.
    2. For Aristotle, ethics was an issue of character rather than conduct.
    3. He elevated moderation to a theory of virtue and saw wisdom in the person who avoided excess in either direction.
    4. This middle way is known as the golden mean.
    5. While the middle way may be the most effective, for Aristotle it was advocated not for its outcome but because it was the most virtuous.
  6. Critique: Standing the test of time.
    1. The Rhetoric is revered by many public-speaking teachers.
    2. Nonetheless, clarity is often a problem with Aristotle’s theory.
      1. The enthymeme is not defined precisely.
      2. The classification of metaphor is confusing.
      3. The distinctions between deliberative and epideictic oratory are blurred.
      4. The promised organizational structure is abandoned.
    3. Some critics are bothered by Aristotle’s characterization of the audience as passive.
    4. Others desire more discussion of the rhetorical situation. 

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Archived chapters (PDF)
from previous editions
are available in
Resources by Type.
See list

New to Theory
Resources?
Find out more in this short
video overview (3:01).


The Rhetoric
Aristotle

GROUP AND PUBLIC COMMUNICATION: PUBLIC RHETORIC

Chapter 22
 Public Rhetoric
Dramatism 
Chapter 22
 Public Rhetoric
Dramatism 

Chapter Outline 9th Edition

  1. Introduction.
    1. Aristotle was a student of Plato’s who disagreed with his mentor over the place of public speaking in Athenian life.
    2. Plato’s negative view of public speaking was based on his assessment of the Sophists.
    3. Aristotle saw rhetoric as a neutral tool with which one could accomplish either noble or fraudulent ends.
      1. Truth is inherently more acceptable than falsehood.
      2. Nonetheless, unscrupulous persuaders may fool an audience unless an ethical speaker uses all possible means of persuasion to counter the error.
      3. Speakers who neglect the art of rhetoric have only themselves to blame for failure. 
    4. Although Aristotle’s Politics and Ethics are polished, well-organized texts, the Rhetoric is a collection of lecture notes.
    5. Aristotle raised rhetoric to a science by systematically exploring the effects of the speaker, the speech, and the audience.
  2. Rhetoric: Making persuasion possible.
    1. For Aristotle, rhetoric was the discovery in each case of the available means of persuasion.
    2. In terms of speech situations, he focused on civic affairs.
      1. Forensic speaking renders just decisions considering actions of the past.
      2. Epideictic speaking considers praise and blame for the benefit of present day audiences.
      3. Deliberative speaking attempts to influence those who consider future policy.
    3. Aristotle classified rhetoric as the counterpart of dialectic.
      1. Dialectic is one-on-one conversation; rhetoric is one person addressing the many.
      2. Dialectic searches for truth; rhetoric demonstrates existing truth.
      3. Dialectic answers general philosophical questions; rhetoric addresses specific, practical ones.
      4. Dialectic deals with certainty; rhetoric considers probability.
  3. Rhetorical proof: Logos, ethos, and pathos.
    1. Persuasion can be artistic or inartistic.
      1. Inartistic or external proofs are those that the speaker does not create.
      2. Artistic or internal proofs are those that the speaker creates.
    2. The available means of persuasion are based on three kinds of proof.
      1. Logical proof (logos) comes from the line of argument in the speech.
      2. Ethical proof (ethos) is the way the speaker’s character is revealed through the message.
      3. Emotional proof (pathos) is the feeling the speech draws from the hearers. 
    3. Aristotle focused on two forms of logical proof—enthymeme and example.
      1. Enthymeme is the strongest of the proofs.
        1. An enthymeme is an incomplete syllogism.
        2. Typical enthymemes leave out the premise that is already accepted by the audience.
        3. Lloyd Bitzer notes that the audience helps construct the proof by supplying the missing premise.
        4. The enthymeme uses deductive logic—moving from global principle to specific truth.
      2. The example uses inductive reasoning—drawing a final conclusion from specific examples.
    4. Ethos emphasizes the speaker’s credibility, which is manifested in intelligence, character, and goodwill.
      1. Aristotle was primarily interested in how the speaker’s ethos is created in a speech.
      2. The assessment of intelligence is based on practical wisdom and shared values.
      3. Virtuous character has to do with the speaker’s image as a good and honest person.
      4. Goodwill is a positive judgment of the speaker’s intention toward the audience.
      5. Aristotle’s explication of ethos has held up well under scientific scrutiny.
    5. Although skeptical of the emotion-laden public oratory typical of his era, Aristotle attempted to help speakers use pathos ethically.
    6. Aristotle catalogued a series of opposite feelings, then explained the conditions under which each mood is experienced.
      1. Anger vs. mildness.
      2. Love or friendship vs. hatred.
      3. Fear vs. confidence.
      4. Indignation vs. pity.
      5. Admiration vs. envy.
  4. The five canons of rhetoric.
    1. Invention—in order to generate effective enthymemes and examples, speakers draw upon both specialized and general knowledge known as topics or topoi.
    2. Arrangement—Aristotle recommended a basic structure.
    3. Style—Aristotle emphasized the pedagogical effectiveness of metaphor.
    4. Memory—this component was emphasized by Roman teachers.
    5. Delivery—naturalness is persuasive.
  5. Ethical reflection: Aristotle’s golden mean.
    1. Aristotle’s work begs the question of the ethicality of altering a message to make it more acceptable to an audience.
    2. For Aristotle, ethics was an issue of character rather than conduct.
    3. He elevated moderation to a theory of virtue and saw wisdom in the person who avoided excess in either direction.
    4. This middle way is known as the golden mean.
    5. While the middle way may be the most effective, for Aristotle it was advocated not for its outcome but because it was the most virtuous.
  6. Critique: Standing the test of time.
    1. The Rhetoric is revered by many public-speaking teachers.
    2. Nonetheless, clarity is often a problem with Aristotle’s theory.
      1. The enthymeme is not defined precisely.
      2. The classification of metaphor is confusing.
      3. The distinctions between deliberative and epideictic oratory are blurred.
      4. The promised organizational structure is abandoned.
    3. Some critics are bothered by Aristotle’s characterization of the audience as passive.
    4. Others desire more discussion of the rhetorical situation. 

 
 
 
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