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11th Edition

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Chapter  1—Launching Your Study of Communication Theory

  1. Communication theorists differ in how they define communication. How important is it that this term is universally understood by communication researchers? By communication students? By the public?

  2. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks’ working definition of communication is: "The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response." What do you appreciate most about this definition? What part of the definition would you change?

  3. In order to consider how communication scholars study messages, pick a song that you like. What would it look like to study the creation of the song? The characteristics of the song? The interpretation and response to the song? What insights would you gain from studying each of these things?

  4. Explain what Burgoon means by her use of the term "hunches" to describe communication theory.

  5. Compare and contrast two of the theory metaphors mentioned by Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks. In what ways are the metaphors similar? How are they different? Which do you think most accurately represents the nature of communication theory?

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Chapter  2—Objective and Interpretive Approaches to Communication Theory

  1. In this chapter, Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks present the objective/interpretive continuum as a way of categorizing communication theories. Are you most comfortable with an objective or interpretive approach? Why?

  2. The chapter opens with competing analyses of a Toyota ad. Which analysis do you find most compelling? Persuasive? Useful? Insightful?

  3. Compare and contrast emancipation and objectivity as goals for theory. How, specifically, do they differ? How, if at all, might the goals combine to pursue shared aims?

  4. What limitations do you anticipate in a strictly objective approach to the study of communication? How about a strictly interpretive approach?

  5. Toward the end of the chapter, the authors reflect on the question, “Why is [the objective/interpretive difference] important?” After reading the chapter, how would you answer this question?

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Chapter  3—Weighing the Words

  1. If you had to pick one standard that is most important for objective scholars, which would it be? Why?
     
  2. If you had to pick one standard that is most important for interpretive scholars, which would it be? Why?
     
  3. Objective scholars tend to collect quantitative data (numbers), and interpretive scholars tend to collect qualitative data (words). Is it possible for objective scholars to use words? For interpretive scholars to use numbers? Why or why not?
     
  4. The end of the chapter tries to identify common ground between the objective and interpretive standards. Which of the six similarities do you find convincing? Which do you think are a bit of a stretch?
     
  5. In this chapter, we find that much of the difference between objective and interpretive scholars involves their approach to bias. Why does the objective scholar think that removing researcher bias is of utmost importance? Why does the interpretive scholar embrace biases as an inherent part of the research process? What advantages and dangers exist in each approach?

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Chapter  4—Mapping the Territory

  1. Examine I.A. Richards's complaint against the semantic trap that he called "the proper meaning superstition." How important is the relationship between a word and the thing it represents? What dangers do we encounter when we make the link between them too strong? Or too weak?
     
  2. Discuss the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and discuss its implications for people who wish to communicate with those who speak other languages.
     
  3. Pick any two of the theoretical traditions. What are the major points of disagreement between the two traditions? What common ground do the traditions share?
     
  4. Access your communication department’s website. Spend some time looking at the courses offered and the interests of the faculty. Which theoretical traditions do you notice? Which appear to be absent? Why might your department reflect some traditions more than others?
     
  5. Consider Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks’ addition of the ethical perspective to Craig’s metamodel. Do you believe this is an important addition? Why or why not? Where would you place the tradition on the map depicted in Figure 4-1?

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Chapter  5—Symbolic Interactionism

  1. Compare and contrast the "I" and "me." According to symbolic interactionism, which is the true self?
     
  2. Consider your own self. How has your sense of self been shaped by messages from the generalized other? What messages have you received that run counter to it? And how, if at all, does your I differ from your me?
     
  3. In folklore and in fiction there are stories of humans reared by animals (for example, Mowgli in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book) who appear to possess a sense of self. Could such a person exist? Explain your position.
     
  4. Since the creation of the theory, symbolic interactionists have emphasized practical application. Name one present-day problem to which symbolic interactionism might be applied. What solutions might symbolic interactionism suggest?
     
  5. The chapter closes with the example of a boy who is physically unable to communicate. According to symbolic interactionism, is this boy human? Do you agree or disagree, and why?

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Chapter  6—Expectancy Violations Theory

  1. According to expectancy violations theory, when is it (probably) effective to violate another person’s expectations for your communication behavior? When is it (probably) ineffective?
     
  2. According to EVT, where do our expectations for communication behavior come from? Can you think of other sources for our expectations that the theory might have missed?
     
  3. What is the difference between violation valence and communicator reward valence? Which is more important?
     
  4. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks award EVT high marks on all six standards for a good objective theory. Which standard do you think the theory meets most effectively? Least effectively?
     
  5. The chapter features a running example of Em's reactions to his students. When have you encountered nonverbal behavior you didn't expect? How did you react? Does your reaction match the prediction of EVT, and why or why not?

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Chapter  7—Family Communication Patterns Theory

  1. Two of the key words in the theory are conversation and conformity. Think of as many synonyms as you can for each word. Which of these synonyms put a positive spin on the idea? A negative spin? A neutral spin? What would FCP say about whether conversation and conformity are positive or negative?

  2. How did your family of origin create a shared reality? Did the way this happened change over the course of your upbringing, and if so, how? Which of the four family types do you think your family was, and what evidence would you point to for support of your choice?

  3. Pick one thing that is of interest to your family--sports, hobbies, politics, religion, entertainment, etc. Explain how your family has engaged in coorientation about that thing.

  4. Research from the theory demonstrates that family-of-origin communication patterns are associated with outcomes as an adult. How do you think your family-of-origin's communication environment influences how you communicate today? If you want to keep those communication patterns, what would you do? If you want to change those communication patterns, what would you do?

  5. The chapter describes Ledbetter's research on students during the first year of college. From that description, which family type do you think is most likely to be successful in college? Least likely to be successful? How might college administrators and professors apply family communication patterns theory to help students have a smooth adjustment to college?

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Chapter  8—Social Penetration Theory

  1. Social penetration theory claims that self-disclosure tends to occur gradually. Think of a time when you’ve seen deep self-disclosure happen quickly. How did you react? Does your reaction fit the prediction of the theory?
     
  2. Describe the law of reciprocity. Why do we tend to match disclosures on breadth and depth? What are the possible consequences of doing otherwise? When might not reciprocating be appropriate and/or effective?
     
  3. Consider ethical egoism. Why does the ethical approach claim that selfishness is virtuous? Do you agree or disagree with this ethical approach, and why? Connect the ethical approach to the claims of social penetration theory (including social exchange).
     
  4. The onion is the central metaphor of this theory. Identify two weaknesses of this metaphor. Then, create a new metaphor for human personality structure that corrects these weaknesses.
     
  5. Compare and contrast the comparison level and the comparison level of alternatives. How do the concepts explain why some people stay in a dissatisfying relationship? Or end a satisfying one? These similar names for two different things are confusing; create new names that capture the essence of each concept.

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Chapter  9—Uncertainty Reduction Theory

  1. Using uncertainty reduction theory as a guide, formulate specific predictions about the different reactions of two groups of incoming college students: 1) one group who participated in a four-day, intensive experience with 10 other new students exploring a wilderness area while 2) the second group spent an evening of conversation and entertainment with a senior or junior. Explain each prediction in terms of specific axioms and theorems.
     
  2. What is an axiom? And what does an axiom have to do with a theorem? Which axiom of uncertainty reduction theory is easiest for you to accept and which is hardest, and why?
     
  3. Berger suggests that people interact less if they do not anticipate future interaction, yet strangers occasionally interact intensely when they first meet (e.g., on a plane or train). Explain this seeming anomaly using the terms of uncertainty reduction theory.
     
  4. Write about a time when you have experienced relational turbulence. To what extent did partner interference and/or relational uncertainty contribute to it? What other factors led you to experience turbulence? How was the turbulence reduced?
     
  5. Berger's uncertainty reduction theory claims humans are motivated by predictability. Sunnafrank (predicted outcome value) and Altman & Taylor (social penetration theory) claim humans are motivated to maximize relational outcomes. Afifi (motivated information management) and Gudykunst (anxiety/uncertainty management) claim humans are motivated to reduce anxiety. Compare and contrast these motivations. When are these motivations compatible? When are they not? Which of the three motivations do you think is strongest in our interpersonal relationships?

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Chapter 10—Social Information Processing Theory

  1. Describe the link between social information, interpersonal impression formation, and relationship development.
     
  2. Walther originally developed the hyperpersonal perspective with reference to text-based media such as e-mail. To what extent do the four elements of the perspective also apply to modern social media such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram? How about video chat like Zoom or FaceTime? Or text messaging?
     
  3. Take a close look at your use of one social media site or app. What elements of your use of the site are low warrant information? Which are high warrant information? Given that people tend to trust high warrant information more than low warrant information, what impression might viewers of this information form of you?
     
  4. When it comes to hostile groups, Walther makes the startling claim that such groups may reduce hostility by communicating exclusively using text-only channels. Use the four elements of the hyperpersonal perspective to explain why Walther offers that advice.
     
  5. The critique section describes modality weaving. What does modality weaving look like in your life? Does SIP explain your modality weaving choices? How could the theory be expanded to better account for modality weaving?

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Chapter 11—Relational Dialectics Theory

  1. How would you describe Baxter's concept of discourse to someone unfamiliar with relational dialectics theory? Choose one object or idea and explain three or four discourses that might constitute the meaning of that object or idea.

  2. Reflect on the three common discursive sites. How do these shape your family relationships? Your romantic relationship (if you are in one)? Your friendships? 

  3. Figure 11-2 portrays struggling discourses using the example of fast food. After reading the chapter and beginning to grasp Baxter's claims, recreate this table using an example drawn from the world of interpersonal relationships.
     
  4. Describe a time that you experienced an aesthetic moment. How did dialogue bring this moment about? Was the sense of unity fleeting, as Baxter predicts, or not?
     
  5. Think of a recent relational conflict you have had with someone close to you. What discourses constituted that conflict? Pages 137-140 describe several ways that discourses can struggle. In your conflict, in what ways did these discourses struggle? What this pattern of struggle satisfying to you or not?

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Chapter 12—Communication Privacy Management Theory

  1. Define the five core principles of communication privacy management theory in your own words. Which principle is most important? Least important? Why did you choose these two?
     
  2. Describe your privacy management regarding the following items: where you live, your major, your class schedule, your romantic status, and your GPA. Who can have access to this information? How permeable are these boundaries? Why do you manage privacy in this way?
     
  3. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks classify CPM as an interpretive theory, yet the critique section notes the use of quantitative research to support the theory. Explain why CPM theory might be more amenable to quantitative/objective research than some other interpretive theories. Relational dialectics theory could serve as an effective contrast in your answer.
     
  4. One of the most vexing experiences described in this chapter is the confidentiality dilemma. Drawing on the ethical reflections in the textbook, define three guiding ethical principles for how to decide when to disclose information against a person’s wishes. Be sure to clearly connect these principles to the ideas of the ethicists covered in the book.
     
  5. Principle 2 mentions five factors that influence privacy rule formation: culture, gender, motivation, context, and risk/benefit ratios. Which factor do you believe is most important in the formation of your privacy rules? Least important? Identify two additional influences on your privacy rule formation that do not appear on this list.

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Chapter 13—Media Multiplexity Theory

  1. Draw a map of a portion of your social network, labeling strong and weak ties separately. Do you see in patterns in who is connected to whom? In how strong and weak ties are connected (or not)? Finally, label each tie by how many media you use in the tie. Is media multiplexity theory right that you use more media with strong ties? If you see any divergence from this pattern, why do you think that's the case?
     
  2. Granovetter claims that weak ties contain advantages that strong ties don't. When have you turned to your weak tie network, and why? When would you prefer to turn to strong ties to help you instead of weak ties?
     
  3. Consider a group to which you belong. What hierarchy of media use expectations exists in this group? Focus your attention on the media used for weak ties. Why does your group use this medium (or these media)? Are these expectations driven by characteristics of the medium, group history, individual preferences, or some other factors?
     
  4. Identify one medium that you enjoy and another that you do not enjoy. Where do these preferences come from? To what extent is your enjoyment a function of the medium's characteristics? To what extent is it a function of the opinions of other people you know?
     
  5. The critique section describes the theory's "chicken-and-egg" question: it isn't clear whether tie strength drives media use, or the other way around. Write a debate around this question. What evidence is there that having a stronger tie leads us to use more media? What evidence is there that using more media leads to a stronger tie? You may want to recruit a fellow student to do this with you; for example, one of you could take one side of the issue, and the other could write a rebuttal.

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Chapter 14—Social Judgment Theory

  1. Sherif stated that "most dramatic cases of attitude change, the most widespread, and enduring, are those involving changes in reference groups with differing values." Paraphrase what Sherif means. Why do you believe this happens? Can you provide an example from personal observation or experience?
     
  2. In light of Bochner and Insko’s sleep study, theorize how source credibility influences the process of making social judgments. Specifically, how does source credibility influence a person’s anchor point? Latitudes? Susceptibility to assimilation and contrast effects? The process of attitude change?
     
  3. Discuss the role of human choice in this theory. Specifically, if the outcome of persuasion only has to do with the discrepancy between the message and the anchor point, to what extent are humans free to make up their own minds?
     
  4. Let’s say that you and I have very different opinions on water conservation—I say "who cares, I'm entitled to water my lawn" and you say, "making sure everyone has enough water is more important than green grass." What would Sherif say you would need to do to persuade me to change my mind?
     
  5. In the discussion of the university fundraiser’s phone call to a wealthy alumnus, Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks raise the question of ethics. To what extent are you willing to use a persuasive message that does not reflect your true thoughts—even if that persuasive message is forecast to be more effective? How do you feel when you receive such persuasive messages? Connect your discussion to two or more of the ethical reflections covered in the textbook.

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Chapter 15—Elaboration Likelihood Model

  1. Describe the central and peripheral routes. To what extent do you think the choice of processing route is under the control of the listener? Under the control of the persuader?
     
  2. The peripheral route is a mental shortcut. Why do we use it rather than thinking things out carefully? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the shortcut?
     
  3. Nilsen argues that ethical persuasion must preserve freedom of choice. Consider a company creating a TV ad for a new car. If an advertiser takes Nilsen’s ethics seriously, how would the advertiser design the ad?
     
  4. Why might objective scholars balk at Petty and Cacioppo’s definition of strong arguments? How could the definition be altered to address their concerns?
     
  5. Where do you think need for cognition comes from? If a college student wants to improve his or her need for cognition, can they? If so, how? If not, why not?

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Chapter 16—Cognitive Dissonance

  1. The minimal justification hypothesis may be one of the most counterintuitive ideas in the social sciences. Explain how the $1/$20 experiment demonstrates that behavior may cause attitudes.
     
  2. Describe a time in your life when you have engaged in selective exposure. Why did you do this? What were the positive outcomes of your selective exposure? The negative outcomes?
     
  3. Assuming Festinger was right, why is the avoidance of dissonance a basic human drive? In other words, how do we benefit from seeking to avoid dissonance?
     
  4. Both cognitive dissonance theory and the elaboration likelihood model are cognitive theories of persuasion and attitude/behavior change. Identify one point of similarity and one point of contrast between the two theories.
     
  5. Compare and contrast the three revisions to cognitive dissonance theory (Aronson's self-consistency, Cooper's personal responsibility for bad outcomes, Steele's self-affirmation). Which revision do you think makes the most valuable and accurate contribution?

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Chapter 17—The Rhetoric

  1. List and briefly describe the five canons of rhetoric. If you could pick one canon which you’d like to learn to use more effectively, which would it be? Why?
     
  2. Aristotle claimed that the enthymeme was a particularly strong way to make an argument. Contrast the enthymeme with the example. Which is inductive, which is deductive, and what does that difference mean? Why might Aristotle have believed that enthymemes were stronger than examples?
     
  3. Of the three proofs, perhaps ethos is misunderstood most by students. Many students think ethos refers to ethics, probably because the words share a common root. Write a statement clarifying for students what ethos is. Specifically, how is ethos similar to ethics? How does it differ?
     
  4. Aristotle advocated the “golden mean,” or a principle of moderation, as a path to a virtuous life. When might moderation not be a wise choice? How can we determine when it is virtuous to be moderate and when it is not?
     
  5. Discuss why Aristotle was skeptical about appeals to the emotions. When have you seen speakers use emotional appeals responsibly? Irresponsibly? State three guidelines for the ethical use of pathos in public speaking.

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Chapter 18—Dramatism

  1. Find a popular song that describes a breakup. Describe the song using the five elements of the pentad. What ratio does the singer/songwriter most emphasize? What does that reveal about the singer/songwriter’s motivation?
     
  2. Burke asserts that without identification there can be no persuasion. Explain what he means by identification and why it is so important for a persuasive speaker.
     
  3. Burke claims that guilt is an underlying motivation for all public rhetoric. First, explain what Burke means by the word “guilt.” Then, take a stand—do you agree with Burke, or not? What evidence would you use to support your position?
     
  4. Find a recent speech by a local or national politician about a controversial issue. After reading the speech closely, identify the god-term(s) and the devil-term(s). How do the words that cluster around each term define them? What does this analysis reveal about the speaker’s motivation?
     
  5. Compare and contrast Burke’s dramatism with Aristotle’s Rhetoric. Where do the theories differ? Where might they find common ground? Can you integrate their insights in a way that establishes identification and consubstantiality with adherents of both theories?

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Chapter 19—Narrative Paradigm

  1. Explain the difference between the rational-world paradigm and the narrative paradigm. Why does Fisher believe this is a difference that truly makes a difference?
     
  2. Which is a worse story—a story that lacks coherence but has fidelity, or a story that lacks fidelity but has coherence?
     
  3. Think of the movie you have seen most recently. Explain whether the movie possesses narrative rationality.
     
  4. Both Fisher (“storytelling animals”) and Burke (“rotten with perfection”) attempt to define the essence of human nature. Compare and contrast their explanations of what it means to be human. Whose account do you find to have the most coherence and fidelity?
     
  5. At times, the chapter stops short of claiming that all communication is story (e.g., first sentence of the last paragraph in the chapter, which is a rhetorical question). Do you think all communication is story? If yes, explain why; if no, provide an example of communication that is not a story.

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Chapter 20—Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making

  1. Although Hirokawa observed that effective groups often start by analyzing the problem, he also noticed that they don’t always do so. Describe a situation when it would be more effective for a group to start with one of the other requisite functions.
     
  2. Hirokawa discovered that the evaluation of negative characteristics is the most crucial function for achieving an effective group decision. Explain three reasons why groups might skip this step, despite its importance.
     
  3. Angela, Brian, Chloe, and Daniel have just gotten together for their first group meeting. Their task is to create a presentation on a theory of their choice for their communication theory course. With the functional perspective in mind, identify three guidelines the group should follow.
     
  4. Review your experience in a decision-making group and consider whether the functional perspective sheds light on the process. Which requisite functions did your group perform ineffectively? Which did they perform well?
     
  5. Some scholars have argued that a weakness of the functional perspective is its lack of attention to the relational aspects of group life. This is particularly problematic for groups whose purpose is, in large part, relational: groups of friends, families, religious groups, and so forth. Identify at least two functions that such social groups must fulfill. Compare and contrast these functions with those identified by Hirokawa and Gouran for decision-making groups.

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Chapter 21—Symbolic Convergence Theory

  1. Discuss a challenging, frustrating, or dysfunctional group you have worked with in the past. How would knowledge of symbolic convergence theory have helped you to improve the health of that group?
     
  2. Think about a group you belong to now (or belonged to in the past): A group of friends, a work team, your family, etc. Describe the fantasy themes in the group. How might you organize these themes into fantasy types?
     
  3. Symbolic convergence theory focuses on cohesion, whereas the functional perspective focuses on effective decisions. Compare and contrast these emphases. What kinds of groups would find the functional perspective most useful? What kinds of groups would find symbolic convergence theory most useful?
     
  4. The theory doesn’t say much about what fantasy themes are most likely to become rhetorical visions. Identify three characteristics of a fantasy theme that you think increase its likelihood of spreading to a broad rhetorical community.
     
  5. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks frame symbolic convergence theory as a hybrid of objective and interpretive approaches. If you had to categorize the theory as primarily one or the other, which would you pick? Why?

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Chapter 22—Cultural Approach to Organizations

  1. Pacanowsky took Geertz’s method, originally developed for studying cultures outside the Western world, and used it to study Western corporations. How is a national or ethnic group like a corporation? How do they differ? Does this matter when translating ethnographic methods from one context to the other?
     
  2. Discuss the culture of an organization or a corporation that you know well. (Your high school or college might be good choices.) Pay particular attention to the organization’s metaphors, stories, and rituals.
     
  3. What corporate stories appear on your college or university’s website or social media channels? Compare and contrast these corporate stories with the collegial stories you’ve heard from other students.
     
  4. Consider ethnography as a method. Why have cultural approach scholars so enthusiastically embraced the method? What disadvantages does the method possess? If ethnography were unavailable, what might be another approach to discovering organizational culture?
     
  5. Pacanowsky claims that “culture is not something an organization has; a culture is something an organization is.” In your own words, explain what he means by this statement.

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Chapter 23—Communicative Constitution of Organizations

  1. Describe the process of membership negotiation for students at the university you now attend. How does membership negotiation happen formally? Informally? Which do you think is more important?
     
  2. After reading about CCO, do you think a family is an example of an organization? Explain your answer using the four flows.
     
  3. Why does McPhee refer to communication as “flows”? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this metaphor?
     
  4. One principle of CCO is that different flows happen in different places. Yet, another principle is that the same message can address multiple flows. At first glance, this looks like a contradiction. Explain how both of these things can be true.
     
  5. Some scholars see CCO as a highly practical theory. Consider graduating college seniors. Identify three guidelines, grounded in CCO, that would help the graduates as they enter the workforce.

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Chapter 24—Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations

  1. A haunting claim of the theory is that members of organizations are sometimes silent and complicit—even unknowing—in the suppression of their ideas. Consider your college or your workplace. Where do you see such consent taking place? Why? How might that consent be changed?
     
  2. Explain two of Deetz's four different ways a corporate decision is made. Be sure to compare how they are similar and where they are divergent.
     
  3. One goal of Deetz’s theory is to make readers aware of corporate colonization. Identify one way in which your life has been “colonized” by a corporation. What disadvantages of that colonization would Deetz note? Can you think of any advantages? What choices could you make to resist such corporate colonization?

  4. Deetz lists nine requirements for negotiations among stakeholders. Which are most important? Which are least important? Which do you believe would be the easiest to implement? The hardest?

  5. The critical theory urges that all communication is political and the product of social construction; therefore, we should closely inquire who benefits from claims of authority. Turn that idea around on the critical theory itself. What political interests does the theory serve? Who might the theory benefit? Who does it empower? Who does it silence? How can the theory incorporate the voices of all stakeholders in its development?

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Chapter 25—Communication Accommodation Theory

  1. CAT claims that, as a general rule, people respond positively to convergence and negatively to divergence. Can you think of exceptions to this general rule? When might convergence produce negative outcomes? When might divergence produce positive outcomes?
     
  2. Explain the differences between the terms accommodation, divergence, convergence, and maintenance. Provide examples of each behavior.
     
  3. Giles sees CAT as a theory about group identity. Identify three groups to which you belong. How does your membership in these groups influence your communication behavior? When you encounter them, what outside groups are especially likely to motivate you to communicate in ways that support your group identity?
     
  4. Select one of the ethical reflections from a preceding chapter. Address how that perspective would answer the twin questions: When is it ethical to converge to another person’s communication behavior? When is it ethical to diverge?
     
  5. Based on your knowledge of CAT, what suggestions would you offer to a person going on a job interview? What should the person do? What should they avoid doing?

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Chapter 26—Face-Negotiation Theory

  1. Reflect on your own self-construal. Do you think of yourself in a more individualistic or collectivistic fashion? Does this match the culture in which you were raised or not? Why?
     
  2. Using the strategies depicted on Figure 26-1, make a list of the three conflict management strategies you most prefer. Then, make a list of the three that you most dislike. Why do you have these preferences? Connect your answer to your cultural background and self-construal.
     
  3. The goal of face-negotiation theory is to connect broad cultural factors to a specific type of communication: conflict management strategies. Identify one other type of interpersonal communication that you think is logically connected with cultural background. Explain this connection.
     
  4. Mindfulness sounds good on paper, but many of us find it difficult to do in practice. Why might mindfulness be difficult? What specific steps can someone take if they wish to improve their level of mindfulness?
     
  5. Face-negotiation theory is located in the section on intercultural theories. Think of a time when you visited another culture, either within your own country or by traveling to another one. Describe experiences during your visit using the vocabulary and ideas of face-negotiation theory.

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Chapter 27—Co-Cultural Theory

  1. Co-cultural theory serves as an interesting point of comparison with several other theories, including Afrocentricity, standpoint theory, muted group theory, communication accommodation theory, and face-negotiation theory. Pick two of these and compare/contrast with co-cultural theory. Where do these theories find common ground with co-cultural theory? Where do they differ? 
     
  2. Orbe takes great care not to exalt or ridicule any preferred outcome, but he acknowledges that preferred outcomes have strengths and weaknesses. Analyze each preferred outcome, seeking to identify common benefits and costs associated with each. How might the context of an interaction influence which outcome a co-cultural group member might prefer?
     
  3. Field of experience is a provocative term in this theory. What is your field of experience as a co-cultural group member, a dominant group member, or perhaps both at different times? Based on this field of experience, what communicative practices are you comfortable enacting? Which would be uncomfortable for you?
     
  4. Which communication approach do you think is most likely to get the attention of a dominant group: being assertive, or being aggressive? What might be the key factors that influence which is most effective?
     
  5. In Andrew's video interview with Orbe, the theorist emphasizes how he hopes the theory will help people make good choices. Reflect on how knowledge of this theory may help you make good choices in your social location.

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Chapter 28—Afrocentricity

  1. How would you explain the concept of cultural hegemony to someone unfamiliar with the idea? Theon Hill explains it using the example of ice in beverages. Choose one or two other specific examples that might help someone understand cultural hegemony.

  2. The chapter's cartoon from The Boondocks suggests that Friends is a Eurocentric show. Assuming you have at least some familiarity with the classic and still-popular NBC sitcom, elaborate this. What aspects of the show indicate Eurocentrism? If Friends were to be rebooted and take the claims of Afrocentricity seriously, how would the rebooted show need to differ from the original?

  3. Hill describes three core assumptions of Afrocentricity: knowledge must be useful, the nature of life is spirtual, and culture is a crucial source for shaping identity. Which of these core assumptions most strongly challenges Eurocentric perspectives, and why? Which is most likely to be considered or embraced by Western communication theorists?

  4. A key idea in Afrocentric theorizing is Nommo. Find a song, speech, book, movie, TV show, cartoon, or other form of media that you believe exhibits Nommo, and explain how Nommo appears in it.

  5. The chapter's critique section concludes with the provocative idea that judging Afrocentricity by Western theory standards might be inappropriate. From your understanding of the theory, identify two possible standards for evaluating theory that might emerge from an Afrocentric perspective.

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Chapter 29—Feminist Standpoint Theory

  1. Assess your social location. What social group memberships influence it? Which are most influential? How would Harding and Wood measure your degree of strong objectivity? Do you agree or disagree with their assessment?
     
  2. For many scientists, “objectivity” is an absolute and binary term—in other words, someone is either objective or not. Discuss, then, what Wood and Harding mean when they speak of “strong objectivity” and “weak objectivity.”
     
  3. How would you explain the idea of intersectionality to someone who is unfamiliar with the term? What examples, images, metaphors, or narratives might you share in order to communicate the idea?
     
  4. Select one of the following theories from elsewhere in the textbook: Uncertainty reduction theory, social information processing theory, communication accommodation theory, cultivation theory. Each of these theories is an objective, scientific theory primarily developed by a Caucasian male. Discuss how the theory might have developed differently if it had been developed by a female scholar of color.
     
  5. What do postmodernists mean when they speak of an “incredulity toward metanarratives”? Do you share their incredulity? Why or why not?

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Chapter 30—Muted Group Theory

  1. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks identify words for sexual promiscuity as an example of masculine bias in the English language. Identify one other word, phrase, or conversational topic that also demonstrates such bias.
     
  2. Many students have a very personal reaction to this theory because it brings to mind their own life experiences. If you feel comfortable doing so, write about a time when you have either been muted because of your group membership, or when you have muted someone else. How does muted group theory help you make sense of this experience?
     
  3. Some students react strongly to Kramarae’s criticism of men. In your essay, address the controversial question: Do men mean to mute women? How would Orbe, Wood, and/or Kramarae answer that question similarly or differently than you do? Whose explanation, if any, do you find most accurate?
     
  4. The chapter considers the role of the internet in muting. Identify one site or app where you think muting of women is common. What aspects of the site or app's design (or affordances; see the context collapse chapter) might facilitate muting? How might the site or app's culture or history encourage muting? If muting were to be reduced or eliminated, what would need to change?
     
  5. Kramarae and Treichler's feminist dictionary was published in 1992. Write new entries for two terms for feminine experience that have emerged since then: mansplaining and #metoo. Then, see if you can create one new word or phrase that voices feminine experience. 

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Chapter 31—Media Ecology

  1. The ear and the eye have been dominant senses in previous media ages. Why does McLuhan suggest touch is a new emphasis in the electronic age? What might this have to do with his term global village?
     
  2. Consider cell phones and reflect on how they change your symbolic environment. In other words, how would your family be different without them? Your school? Work? Society overall? The point here is not to critique the existence of cell phones, but rather to describe their environmental effects--effects that McLuhan thinks are most often invisible.
     
  3. The chapter suggests that the digital age might be distinct from the electronic age. In your answer, either explain why and how the digital age is indeed distinct, or why and how digital technology is merely a continuation of the electronic age.
     
  4. Choose the social media platform you use most often and ask the questions Postman would want us to ask: What do we gain from this technology? What do we lose? What are the moral implications of this bargain? Are the consequences more humanistic or antihumanistic? Do we as a society gain more than we lose, or do we lose more than we gain?
     
  5. More than almost any other theory in the book, McLuhan’s theory has generated both public notoriety and controversy. In your essay, side unambiguously with either McLuhan or his critics. Explain why the theory provides brilliant insight into the human condition or, alternatively, why the theory is very wrong.

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Chapter 32—Context Collapse

  1. Reflect on the experience of context collapse in your life. How often do you think about context collapse when using social media? The chapter notes that context collapse can create challenges for communicators. When has context collapse created challenges for you, if ever? And when, if ever, has context collapse been beneficial?

  2. Pick a particular social media platform. Describe it using the six affordances listed in the chapter, and explain how these affordances create (or inhibit) the possibility of context collapse.

  3. The chapter contrasts the invisible audience with the imagined audience. In what circumstances might these be very different? In what circumstances might they be very similar?

  4. Pick one of the specific tactics from tailoring performances and one from segmenting audiences. Compare and contrast each tactic regarding their benefits, drawbacks, motives for use, and possible outcomes.

  5. Identify a social media influencer and examine the content they produce. How do they engage in self-branding? Do you see any evidence of aspirational labor? Do you detect any strategies or tactics that the influencer uses to manage context collapse?

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Chapter 33—Semiotics

  1. Explain the relationship among a sign, a signifier, and a signified. Use a sign prevalent on your campus or in your town as an example.

  2. Think of your favorite recently-released movie. Using Barthes’ ideas, explain how the movie reinforces the dominant values of society.
     
  3. Unlike McLuhan, Barthes says little about the medium through which a sign is communicated. Write a dialogue between McLuhan and Barthes where they debate the question: Which is more important, the medium or the content of a message?
     
  4. Keeping his analysis of wrestling in mind, how might Barthes respond to the genre of reality television shows? How would he characterize the basic premises and plot elements that comprise the shows? How might he account for their popularity?

  5. Explain the difference between denotative and connotative sign systems. What is the connection between them? To really flesh this out, choose an example (other than the COVID-19 masks described in the chapter) to explain these sign systems.

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Chapter 34—Cultural Studies

  1. Visit an internet news site and read one of the prominently-featured articles. What stories are told in the article? Which stories, although relevant, are not told? How would Hall explain this?
     
  2. Think of the most recent movie you’ve watched.  In what ways does the movie function to perpetuate dominant cultural values? Do you see any ways that the movie functions to resist the ideological status quo?
     
  3. One of the sharpest critiques of cultural studies concerns whether scholarship should be done with the aim of promoting a specific political ideology. Explain why scholars in the socio-psychological, cybernetic, and/or rhetorical traditions might particularly have such concerns. Then, explain why you either agree with those concerns or why you dismiss them.
     
  4. Hall said that oppositional practice was the rarest form of decoding. Can you think of a time when you engaged in oppositional practice? Why did you decide to decode the media message in that way? If you have never engaged in oppositional practice, what would it take for you to do so?
     
  5. Would Hall's analysis of media in society be different if the news media were publicly owned? If so, how? What problem(s) would public ownership solve? What new problem(s) would it create?

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Chapter 35—Uses and Gratifications

  1. A chief assumption of the theory is that people can accurately report their reasons for media use. That assumption is also quite controversial. Explain whether you think this is a reasonable assumption or not.
     
  2. Think of the most recent TV show you’ve watched. Which of Rubin’s gratifications most motivated your viewing? Are there any motives for your viewing that don’t appear in the typology?
     
  3. Reflect on the idea of parasocial interaction. When have you, or someone you know, experienced it? When is parasocial interaction healthy, and when is it unhealthy?
     
  4. Contrast uses and gratifications theory with either Gerbner’s cultivation theory, McLuhan’smedia ecology, or Hall’s cultural studies. How do the two theories differ in their assumptions about media use? What common ground, if any, do they share? The best answers will draw connections to the metatheoretical traditions to which the theories belong.
     
  5. Compare Rubin’s typology, originally developed for describing TV viewing, with people’s use of social media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.) today. Which gratifications apply to these sites? Which, if any, do not? What gratifications would need to be added to the list to comprehensively describe motivations for social media use?

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Chapter 36—Cultivation Theory

  1. For some sports fans, watching games and sports news comprises much of their viewing behavior. What kind of worldview might a heavy diet of sports TV cultivate?
     
  2. Think of your three favorite television shows. How much violence do they contain? Do the shows exert cultivation effects beyond violence? If so, what are they?
     
  3. The chapter mentions a quote from Scottish patriot Andrew Fletcher: “If a man were permitted to make all the ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a nation.” Explain why this was a favorite quote for Gerbner.
     
  4. Today, most people do not watch TV through airwave broadcast or through cable; rather, they access video content through on-demand streaming services. Discuss the extent to which these technological changes necessitate revising cultivation theory.
     
  5. The institutional process analysis prong is crucial to cultivation theory's explanatory engine, but it has received the least amount of research. Why might that be? What would scholars need to do in order to engage in institutional process analysis? If you have read the chapter on Hall's cultural studies, how would this kind of research be similar to or different from that of cultural studies scholars?

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Chapter 37—Agenda-Setting Theory

  1. Both agenda-setting theory and cultivation theory address how the media shapes the beliefs of viewers and users. Compare and contrast these theories in terms of their emphases, their research methods, and basic assumptions. With the six criteria for a good objective theory in mind, which do you think is the superior theory?
     
  2. Throughout the chapter, Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks refer to examples of presidential elections from the 1960s on. Consider the most recent presidential election in your country. What do you remember about how the media framed each of the major candidates? Identify at least two different frames that could be adopted for each candidate.
     
  3. In response to the question, “Who sets the agenda for the agenda-setters?”, the chapter suggests several answers: gatekeepers, interest aggregations, powerful political figures, and public relations specialists, and partisan and/or specialized news sources. Which of these do you think wields the strongest agenda-setting power? What factors might alter that power balance?
     
  4. Find a copy of the most recent edition of your school’s newspaper or news website. What issues are emphasized? What issues are deemphasized? What issues do not appear at all? Why?

  5. The spread of fake news has become a major concern. Use the language and ideas of agenda-setting theory to explain why fake news is harmful and what could be done to reduce, slow, or stop it.

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Chapter 38—Common Threads in Comm Theories

  1. One of the uniting themes of the book is the continuum between objective and interpretive theories. How would an objective scholar answer the question, “What are these threads, really?” How would an interpretive scholar answer the question?
     
  2. Examine the theories you have studied in the course. Beyond the connections identified by Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks, identify one or two additional threads connecting the theories.
     
  3. At many universities, the communication theory course occurs early in the major or minor. If this is the case for you, as you look ahead to taking future communication courses, which threads are you most interested in exploring further? Why?
     
  4. The chapter reports a “cause for pause” associated with each thread. Which of these “causes” is the most serious critique? Why do you think this critique is worthy of particularly serious consideration?
     
  5. The placement of the theories on the threads isn’t the final word. Identify one theory you think is misplaced, and explain why you think that theory doesn’t really exemplify the thread.

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Chapter  1—Launching Your Study of Communication Theory

  1. Communication theorists differ in how they define communication. How important is it that this term is universally understood by communication researchers? By communication students? By the public?

  2. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks’ working definition of communication is: "The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a response." What do you appreciate most about this definition? What part of the definition would you change?

  3. In order to consider how communication scholars study messages, pick a song that you like. What would it look like to study the creation of the song? The characteristics of the song? The interpretation and response to the song? What insights would you gain from studying each of these things?

  4. Explain what Burgoon means by her use of the term "hunches" to describe communication theory.

  5. Compare and contrast two of the theory metaphors mentioned by Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks. In what ways are the metaphors similar? How are they different? Which do you think most accurately represents the nature of communication theory?

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Chapter  2—Objective and Interpretive Approaches to Communication Theory

  1. In this chapter, Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks present the objective/interpretive continuum as a way of categorizing communication theories. Are you most comfortable with an objective or interpretive approach? Why?

  2. The chapter opens with competing analyses of a Toyota ad. Which analysis do you find most compelling? Persuasive? Useful? Insightful?

  3. Compare and contrast emancipation and objectivity as goals for theory. How, specifically, do they differ? How, if at all, might the goals combine to pursue shared aims?

  4. What limitations do you anticipate in a strictly objective approach to the study of communication? How about a strictly interpretive approach?

  5. Toward the end of the chapter, the authors reflect on the question, “Why is [the objective/interpretive difference] important?” After reading the chapter, how would you answer this question?

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Chapter  3—Weighing the Words

  1. If you had to pick one standard that is most important for objective scholars, which would it be? Why?
     
  2. If you had to pick one standard that is most important for interpretive scholars, which would it be? Why?
     
  3. Objective scholars tend to collect quantitative data (numbers), and interpretive scholars tend to collect qualitative data (words). Is it possible for objective scholars to use words? For interpretive scholars to use numbers? Why or why not?
     
  4. The end of the chapter tries to identify common ground between the objective and interpretive standards. Which of the six similarities do you find convincing? Which do you think are a bit of a stretch?
     
  5. In this chapter, we find that much of the difference between objective and interpretive scholars involves their approach to bias. Why does the objective scholar think that removing researcher bias is of utmost importance? Why does the interpretive scholar embrace biases as an inherent part of the research process? What advantages and dangers exist in each approach?

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Chapter  4—Mapping the Territory

  1. Examine I.A. Richards's complaint against the semantic trap that he called "the proper meaning superstition." How important is the relationship between a word and the thing it represents? What dangers do we encounter when we make the link between them too strong? Or too weak?
     
  2. Discuss the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and discuss its implications for people who wish to communicate with those who speak other languages.
     
  3. Pick any two of the theoretical traditions. What are the major points of disagreement between the two traditions? What common ground do the traditions share?
     
  4. Access your communication department’s website. Spend some time looking at the courses offered and the interests of the faculty. Which theoretical traditions do you notice? Which appear to be absent? Why might your department reflect some traditions more than others?
     
  5. Consider Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks’ addition of the ethical perspective to Craig’s metamodel. Do you believe this is an important addition? Why or why not? Where would you place the tradition on the map depicted in Figure 4-1?

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Chapter  5—Symbolic Interactionism

  1. Compare and contrast the "I" and "me." According to symbolic interactionism, which is the true self?
     
  2. Consider your own self. How has your sense of self been shaped by messages from the generalized other? What messages have you received that run counter to it? And how, if at all, does your I differ from your me?
     
  3. In folklore and in fiction there are stories of humans reared by animals (for example, Mowgli in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book) who appear to possess a sense of self. Could such a person exist? Explain your position.
     
  4. Since the creation of the theory, symbolic interactionists have emphasized practical application. Name one present-day problem to which symbolic interactionism might be applied. What solutions might symbolic interactionism suggest?
     
  5. The chapter closes with the example of a boy who is physically unable to communicate. According to symbolic interactionism, is this boy human? Do you agree or disagree, and why?

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Chapter  6—Expectancy Violations Theory

  1. According to expectancy violations theory, when is it (probably) effective to violate another person’s expectations for your communication behavior? When is it (probably) ineffective?
     
  2. According to EVT, where do our expectations for communication behavior come from? Can you think of other sources for our expectations that the theory might have missed?
     
  3. What is the difference between violation valence and communicator reward valence? Which is more important?
     
  4. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks award EVT high marks on all six standards for a good objective theory. Which standard do you think the theory meets most effectively? Least effectively?
     
  5. The chapter features a running example of Em's reactions to his students. When have you encountered nonverbal behavior you didn't expect? How did you react? Does your reaction match the prediction of EVT, and why or why not?

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Chapter  7—Family Communication Patterns Theory

  1. Two of the key words in the theory are conversation and conformity. Think of as many synonyms as you can for each word. Which of these synonyms put a positive spin on the idea? A negative spin? A neutral spin? What would FCP say about whether conversation and conformity are positive or negative?

  2. How did your family of origin create a shared reality? Did the way this happened change over the course of your upbringing, and if so, how? Which of the four family types do you think your family was, and what evidence would you point to for support of your choice?

  3. Pick one thing that is of interest to your family--sports, hobbies, politics, religion, entertainment, etc. Explain how your family has engaged in coorientation about that thing.

  4. Research from the theory demonstrates that family-of-origin communication patterns are associated with outcomes as an adult. How do you think your family-of-origin's communication environment influences how you communicate today? If you want to keep those communication patterns, what would you do? If you want to change those communication patterns, what would you do?

  5. The chapter describes Ledbetter's research on students during the first year of college. From that description, which family type do you think is most likely to be successful in college? Least likely to be successful? How might college administrators and professors apply family communication patterns theory to help students have a smooth adjustment to college?

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Chapter  8—Social Penetration Theory

  1. Social penetration theory claims that self-disclosure tends to occur gradually. Think of a time when you’ve seen deep self-disclosure happen quickly. How did you react? Does your reaction fit the prediction of the theory?
     
  2. Describe the law of reciprocity. Why do we tend to match disclosures on breadth and depth? What are the possible consequences of doing otherwise? When might not reciprocating be appropriate and/or effective?
     
  3. Consider ethical egoism. Why does the ethical approach claim that selfishness is virtuous? Do you agree or disagree with this ethical approach, and why? Connect the ethical approach to the claims of social penetration theory (including social exchange).
     
  4. The onion is the central metaphor of this theory. Identify two weaknesses of this metaphor. Then, create a new metaphor for human personality structure that corrects these weaknesses.
     
  5. Compare and contrast the comparison level and the comparison level of alternatives. How do the concepts explain why some people stay in a dissatisfying relationship? Or end a satisfying one? These similar names for two different things are confusing; create new names that capture the essence of each concept.

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Chapter  9—Uncertainty Reduction Theory

  1. Using uncertainty reduction theory as a guide, formulate specific predictions about the different reactions of two groups of incoming college students: 1) one group who participated in a four-day, intensive experience with 10 other new students exploring a wilderness area while 2) the second group spent an evening of conversation and entertainment with a senior or junior. Explain each prediction in terms of specific axioms and theorems.
     
  2. What is an axiom? And what does an axiom have to do with a theorem? Which axiom of uncertainty reduction theory is easiest for you to accept and which is hardest, and why?
     
  3. Berger suggests that people interact less if they do not anticipate future interaction, yet strangers occasionally interact intensely when they first meet (e.g., on a plane or train). Explain this seeming anomaly using the terms of uncertainty reduction theory.
     
  4. Write about a time when you have experienced relational turbulence. To what extent did partner interference and/or relational uncertainty contribute to it? What other factors led you to experience turbulence? How was the turbulence reduced?
     
  5. Berger's uncertainty reduction theory claims humans are motivated by predictability. Sunnafrank (predicted outcome value) and Altman & Taylor (social penetration theory) claim humans are motivated to maximize relational outcomes. Afifi (motivated information management) and Gudykunst (anxiety/uncertainty management) claim humans are motivated to reduce anxiety. Compare and contrast these motivations. When are these motivations compatible? When are they not? Which of the three motivations do you think is strongest in our interpersonal relationships?

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Chapter 10—Social Information Processing Theory

  1. Describe the link between social information, interpersonal impression formation, and relationship development.
     
  2. Walther originally developed the hyperpersonal perspective with reference to text-based media such as e-mail. To what extent do the four elements of the perspective also apply to modern social media such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram? How about video chat like Zoom or FaceTime? Or text messaging?
     
  3. Take a close look at your use of one social media site or app. What elements of your use of the site are low warrant information? Which are high warrant information? Given that people tend to trust high warrant information more than low warrant information, what impression might viewers of this information form of you?
     
  4. When it comes to hostile groups, Walther makes the startling claim that such groups may reduce hostility by communicating exclusively using text-only channels. Use the four elements of the hyperpersonal perspective to explain why Walther offers that advice.
     
  5. The critique section describes modality weaving. What does modality weaving look like in your life? Does SIP explain your modality weaving choices? How could the theory be expanded to better account for modality weaving?

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Chapter 11—Relational Dialectics Theory

  1. How would you describe Baxter's concept of discourse to someone unfamiliar with relational dialectics theory? Choose one object or idea and explain three or four discourses that might constitute the meaning of that object or idea.

  2. Reflect on the three common discursive sites. How do these shape your family relationships? Your romantic relationship (if you are in one)? Your friendships? 

  3. Figure 11-2 portrays struggling discourses using the example of fast food. After reading the chapter and beginning to grasp Baxter's claims, recreate this table using an example drawn from the world of interpersonal relationships.
     
  4. Describe a time that you experienced an aesthetic moment. How did dialogue bring this moment about? Was the sense of unity fleeting, as Baxter predicts, or not?
     
  5. Think of a recent relational conflict you have had with someone close to you. What discourses constituted that conflict? Pages 137-140 describe several ways that discourses can struggle. In your conflict, in what ways did these discourses struggle? What this pattern of struggle satisfying to you or not?

Close

Chapter 12—Communication Privacy Management Theory

  1. Define the five core principles of communication privacy management theory in your own words. Which principle is most important? Least important? Why did you choose these two?
     
  2. Describe your privacy management regarding the following items: where you live, your major, your class schedule, your romantic status, and your GPA. Who can have access to this information? How permeable are these boundaries? Why do you manage privacy in this way?
     
  3. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks classify CPM as an interpretive theory, yet the critique section notes the use of quantitative research to support the theory. Explain why CPM theory might be more amenable to quantitative/objective research than some other interpretive theories. Relational dialectics theory could serve as an effective contrast in your answer.
     
  4. One of the most vexing experiences described in this chapter is the confidentiality dilemma. Drawing on the ethical reflections in the textbook, define three guiding ethical principles for how to decide when to disclose information against a person’s wishes. Be sure to clearly connect these principles to the ideas of the ethicists covered in the book.
     
  5. Principle 2 mentions five factors that influence privacy rule formation: culture, gender, motivation, context, and risk/benefit ratios. Which factor do you believe is most important in the formation of your privacy rules? Least important? Identify two additional influences on your privacy rule formation that do not appear on this list.

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Chapter 13—Media Multiplexity Theory

  1. Draw a map of a portion of your social network, labeling strong and weak ties separately. Do you see in patterns in who is connected to whom? In how strong and weak ties are connected (or not)? Finally, label each tie by how many media you use in the tie. Is media multiplexity theory right that you use more media with strong ties? If you see any divergence from this pattern, why do you think that's the case?
     
  2. Granovetter claims that weak ties contain advantages that strong ties don't. When have you turned to your weak tie network, and why? When would you prefer to turn to strong ties to help you instead of weak ties?
     
  3. Consider a group to which you belong. What hierarchy of media use expectations exists in this group? Focus your attention on the media used for weak ties. Why does your group use this medium (or these media)? Are these expectations driven by characteristics of the medium, group history, individual preferences, or some other factors?
     
  4. Identify one medium that you enjoy and another that you do not enjoy. Where do these preferences come from? To what extent is your enjoyment a function of the medium's characteristics? To what extent is it a function of the opinions of other people you know?
     
  5. The critique section describes the theory's "chicken-and-egg" question: it isn't clear whether tie strength drives media use, or the other way around. Write a debate around this question. What evidence is there that having a stronger tie leads us to use more media? What evidence is there that using more media leads to a stronger tie? You may want to recruit a fellow student to do this with you; for example, one of you could take one side of the issue, and the other could write a rebuttal.

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Chapter 14—Social Judgment Theory

  1. Sherif stated that "most dramatic cases of attitude change, the most widespread, and enduring, are those involving changes in reference groups with differing values." Paraphrase what Sherif means. Why do you believe this happens? Can you provide an example from personal observation or experience?
     
  2. In light of Bochner and Insko’s sleep study, theorize how source credibility influences the process of making social judgments. Specifically, how does source credibility influence a person’s anchor point? Latitudes? Susceptibility to assimilation and contrast effects? The process of attitude change?
     
  3. Discuss the role of human choice in this theory. Specifically, if the outcome of persuasion only has to do with the discrepancy between the message and the anchor point, to what extent are humans free to make up their own minds?
     
  4. Let’s say that you and I have very different opinions on water conservation—I say "who cares, I'm entitled to water my lawn" and you say, "making sure everyone has enough water is more important than green grass." What would Sherif say you would need to do to persuade me to change my mind?
     
  5. In the discussion of the university fundraiser’s phone call to a wealthy alumnus, Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks raise the question of ethics. To what extent are you willing to use a persuasive message that does not reflect your true thoughts—even if that persuasive message is forecast to be more effective? How do you feel when you receive such persuasive messages? Connect your discussion to two or more of the ethical reflections covered in the textbook.

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Chapter 15—Elaboration Likelihood Model

  1. Describe the central and peripheral routes. To what extent do you think the choice of processing route is under the control of the listener? Under the control of the persuader?
     
  2. The peripheral route is a mental shortcut. Why do we use it rather than thinking things out carefully? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the shortcut?
     
  3. Nilsen argues that ethical persuasion must preserve freedom of choice. Consider a company creating a TV ad for a new car. If an advertiser takes Nilsen’s ethics seriously, how would the advertiser design the ad?
     
  4. Why might objective scholars balk at Petty and Cacioppo’s definition of strong arguments? How could the definition be altered to address their concerns?
     
  5. Where do you think need for cognition comes from? If a college student wants to improve his or her need for cognition, can they? If so, how? If not, why not?

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Chapter 16—Cognitive Dissonance

  1. The minimal justification hypothesis may be one of the most counterintuitive ideas in the social sciences. Explain how the $1/$20 experiment demonstrates that behavior may cause attitudes.
     
  2. Describe a time in your life when you have engaged in selective exposure. Why did you do this? What were the positive outcomes of your selective exposure? The negative outcomes?
     
  3. Assuming Festinger was right, why is the avoidance of dissonance a basic human drive? In other words, how do we benefit from seeking to avoid dissonance?
     
  4. Both cognitive dissonance theory and the elaboration likelihood model are cognitive theories of persuasion and attitude/behavior change. Identify one point of similarity and one point of contrast between the two theories.
     
  5. Compare and contrast the three revisions to cognitive dissonance theory (Aronson's self-consistency, Cooper's personal responsibility for bad outcomes, Steele's self-affirmation). Which revision do you think makes the most valuable and accurate contribution?

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Chapter 17—The Rhetoric

  1. List and briefly describe the five canons of rhetoric. If you could pick one canon which you’d like to learn to use more effectively, which would it be? Why?
     
  2. Aristotle claimed that the enthymeme was a particularly strong way to make an argument. Contrast the enthymeme with the example. Which is inductive, which is deductive, and what does that difference mean? Why might Aristotle have believed that enthymemes were stronger than examples?
     
  3. Of the three proofs, perhaps ethos is misunderstood most by students. Many students think ethos refers to ethics, probably because the words share a common root. Write a statement clarifying for students what ethos is. Specifically, how is ethos similar to ethics? How does it differ?
     
  4. Aristotle advocated the “golden mean,” or a principle of moderation, as a path to a virtuous life. When might moderation not be a wise choice? How can we determine when it is virtuous to be moderate and when it is not?
     
  5. Discuss why Aristotle was skeptical about appeals to the emotions. When have you seen speakers use emotional appeals responsibly? Irresponsibly? State three guidelines for the ethical use of pathos in public speaking.

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Chapter 18—Dramatism

  1. Find a popular song that describes a breakup. Describe the song using the five elements of the pentad. What ratio does the singer/songwriter most emphasize? What does that reveal about the singer/songwriter’s motivation?
     
  2. Burke asserts that without identification there can be no persuasion. Explain what he means by identification and why it is so important for a persuasive speaker.
     
  3. Burke claims that guilt is an underlying motivation for all public rhetoric. First, explain what Burke means by the word “guilt.” Then, take a stand—do you agree with Burke, or not? What evidence would you use to support your position?
     
  4. Find a recent speech by a local or national politician about a controversial issue. After reading the speech closely, identify the god-term(s) and the devil-term(s). How do the words that cluster around each term define them? What does this analysis reveal about the speaker’s motivation?
     
  5. Compare and contrast Burke’s dramatism with Aristotle’s Rhetoric. Where do the theories differ? Where might they find common ground? Can you integrate their insights in a way that establishes identification and consubstantiality with adherents of both theories?

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Chapter 19—Narrative Paradigm

  1. Explain the difference between the rational-world paradigm and the narrative paradigm. Why does Fisher believe this is a difference that truly makes a difference?
     
  2. Which is a worse story—a story that lacks coherence but has fidelity, or a story that lacks fidelity but has coherence?
     
  3. Think of the movie you have seen most recently. Explain whether the movie possesses narrative rationality.
     
  4. Both Fisher (“storytelling animals”) and Burke (“rotten with perfection”) attempt to define the essence of human nature. Compare and contrast their explanations of what it means to be human. Whose account do you find to have the most coherence and fidelity?
     
  5. At times, the chapter stops short of claiming that all communication is story (e.g., first sentence of the last paragraph in the chapter, which is a rhetorical question). Do you think all communication is story? If yes, explain why; if no, provide an example of communication that is not a story.

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Chapter 20—Functional Perspective on Group Decision Making

  1. Although Hirokawa observed that effective groups often start by analyzing the problem, he also noticed that they don’t always do so. Describe a situation when it would be more effective for a group to start with one of the other requisite functions.
     
  2. Hirokawa discovered that the evaluation of negative characteristics is the most crucial function for achieving an effective group decision. Explain three reasons why groups might skip this step, despite its importance.
     
  3. Angela, Brian, Chloe, and Daniel have just gotten together for their first group meeting. Their task is to create a presentation on a theory of their choice for their communication theory course. With the functional perspective in mind, identify three guidelines the group should follow.
     
  4. Review your experience in a decision-making group and consider whether the functional perspective sheds light on the process. Which requisite functions did your group perform ineffectively? Which did they perform well?
     
  5. Some scholars have argued that a weakness of the functional perspective is its lack of attention to the relational aspects of group life. This is particularly problematic for groups whose purpose is, in large part, relational: groups of friends, families, religious groups, and so forth. Identify at least two functions that such social groups must fulfill. Compare and contrast these functions with those identified by Hirokawa and Gouran for decision-making groups.

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Chapter 21—Symbolic Convergence Theory

  1. Discuss a challenging, frustrating, or dysfunctional group you have worked with in the past. How would knowledge of symbolic convergence theory have helped you to improve the health of that group?
     
  2. Think about a group you belong to now (or belonged to in the past): A group of friends, a work team, your family, etc. Describe the fantasy themes in the group. How might you organize these themes into fantasy types?
     
  3. Symbolic convergence theory focuses on cohesion, whereas the functional perspective focuses on effective decisions. Compare and contrast these emphases. What kinds of groups would find the functional perspective most useful? What kinds of groups would find symbolic convergence theory most useful?
     
  4. The theory doesn’t say much about what fantasy themes are most likely to become rhetorical visions. Identify three characteristics of a fantasy theme that you think increase its likelihood of spreading to a broad rhetorical community.
     
  5. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks frame symbolic convergence theory as a hybrid of objective and interpretive approaches. If you had to categorize the theory as primarily one or the other, which would you pick? Why?

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Chapter 22—Cultural Approach to Organizations

  1. Pacanowsky took Geertz’s method, originally developed for studying cultures outside the Western world, and used it to study Western corporations. How is a national or ethnic group like a corporation? How do they differ? Does this matter when translating ethnographic methods from one context to the other?
     
  2. Discuss the culture of an organization or a corporation that you know well. (Your high school or college might be good choices.) Pay particular attention to the organization’s metaphors, stories, and rituals.
     
  3. What corporate stories appear on your college or university’s website or social media channels? Compare and contrast these corporate stories with the collegial stories you’ve heard from other students.
     
  4. Consider ethnography as a method. Why have cultural approach scholars so enthusiastically embraced the method? What disadvantages does the method possess? If ethnography were unavailable, what might be another approach to discovering organizational culture?
     
  5. Pacanowsky claims that “culture is not something an organization has; a culture is something an organization is.” In your own words, explain what he means by this statement.

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Chapter 23—Communicative Constitution of Organizations

  1. Describe the process of membership negotiation for students at the university you now attend. How does membership negotiation happen formally? Informally? Which do you think is more important?
     
  2. After reading about CCO, do you think a family is an example of an organization? Explain your answer using the four flows.
     
  3. Why does McPhee refer to communication as “flows”? What are the advantages and disadvantages of this metaphor?
     
  4. One principle of CCO is that different flows happen in different places. Yet, another principle is that the same message can address multiple flows. At first glance, this looks like a contradiction. Explain how both of these things can be true.
     
  5. Some scholars see CCO as a highly practical theory. Consider graduating college seniors. Identify three guidelines, grounded in CCO, that would help the graduates as they enter the workforce.

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Chapter 24—Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations

  1. A haunting claim of the theory is that members of organizations are sometimes silent and complicit—even unknowing—in the suppression of their ideas. Consider your college or your workplace. Where do you see such consent taking place? Why? How might that consent be changed?
     
  2. Explain two of Deetz's four different ways a corporate decision is made. Be sure to compare how they are similar and where they are divergent.
     
  3. One goal of Deetz’s theory is to make readers aware of corporate colonization. Identify one way in which your life has been “colonized” by a corporation. What disadvantages of that colonization would Deetz note? Can you think of any advantages? What choices could you make to resist such corporate colonization?

  4. Deetz lists nine requirements for negotiations among stakeholders. Which are most important? Which are least important? Which do you believe would be the easiest to implement? The hardest?

  5. The critical theory urges that all communication is political and the product of social construction; therefore, we should closely inquire who benefits from claims of authority. Turn that idea around on the critical theory itself. What political interests does the theory serve? Who might the theory benefit? Who does it empower? Who does it silence? How can the theory incorporate the voices of all stakeholders in its development?

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Chapter 25—Communication Accommodation Theory

  1. CAT claims that, as a general rule, people respond positively to convergence and negatively to divergence. Can you think of exceptions to this general rule? When might convergence produce negative outcomes? When might divergence produce positive outcomes?
     
  2. Explain the differences between the terms accommodation, divergence, convergence, and maintenance. Provide examples of each behavior.
     
  3. Giles sees CAT as a theory about group identity. Identify three groups to which you belong. How does your membership in these groups influence your communication behavior? When you encounter them, what outside groups are especially likely to motivate you to communicate in ways that support your group identity?
     
  4. Select one of the ethical reflections from a preceding chapter. Address how that perspective would answer the twin questions: When is it ethical to converge to another person’s communication behavior? When is it ethical to diverge?
     
  5. Based on your knowledge of CAT, what suggestions would you offer to a person going on a job interview? What should the person do? What should they avoid doing?

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Chapter 26—Face-Negotiation Theory

  1. Reflect on your own self-construal. Do you think of yourself in a more individualistic or collectivistic fashion? Does this match the culture in which you were raised or not? Why?
     
  2. Using the strategies depicted on Figure 26-1, make a list of the three conflict management strategies you most prefer. Then, make a list of the three that you most dislike. Why do you have these preferences? Connect your answer to your cultural background and self-construal.
     
  3. The goal of face-negotiation theory is to connect broad cultural factors to a specific type of communication: conflict management strategies. Identify one other type of interpersonal communication that you think is logically connected with cultural background. Explain this connection.
     
  4. Mindfulness sounds good on paper, but many of us find it difficult to do in practice. Why might mindfulness be difficult? What specific steps can someone take if they wish to improve their level of mindfulness?
     
  5. Face-negotiation theory is located in the section on intercultural theories. Think of a time when you visited another culture, either within your own country or by traveling to another one. Describe experiences during your visit using the vocabulary and ideas of face-negotiation theory.

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Chapter 27—Co-Cultural Theory

  1. Co-cultural theory serves as an interesting point of comparison with several other theories, including Afrocentricity, standpoint theory, muted group theory, communication accommodation theory, and face-negotiation theory. Pick two of these and compare/contrast with co-cultural theory. Where do these theories find common ground with co-cultural theory? Where do they differ? 
     
  2. Orbe takes great care not to exalt or ridicule any preferred outcome, but he acknowledges that preferred outcomes have strengths and weaknesses. Analyze each preferred outcome, seeking to identify common benefits and costs associated with each. How might the context of an interaction influence which outcome a co-cultural group member might prefer?
     
  3. Field of experience is a provocative term in this theory. What is your field of experience as a co-cultural group member, a dominant group member, or perhaps both at different times? Based on this field of experience, what communicative practices are you comfortable enacting? Which would be uncomfortable for you?
     
  4. Which communication approach do you think is most likely to get the attention of a dominant group: being assertive, or being aggressive? What might be the key factors that influence which is most effective?
     
  5. In Andrew's video interview with Orbe, the theorist emphasizes how he hopes the theory will help people make good choices. Reflect on how knowledge of this theory may help you make good choices in your social location.

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Chapter 28—Afrocentricity

  1. How would you explain the concept of cultural hegemony to someone unfamiliar with the idea? Theon Hill explains it using the example of ice in beverages. Choose one or two other specific examples that might help someone understand cultural hegemony.

  2. The chapter's cartoon from The Boondocks suggests that Friends is a Eurocentric show. Assuming you have at least some familiarity with the classic and still-popular NBC sitcom, elaborate this. What aspects of the show indicate Eurocentrism? If Friends were to be rebooted and take the claims of Afrocentricity seriously, how would the rebooted show need to differ from the original?

  3. Hill describes three core assumptions of Afrocentricity: knowledge must be useful, the nature of life is spirtual, and culture is a crucial source for shaping identity. Which of these core assumptions most strongly challenges Eurocentric perspectives, and why? Which is most likely to be considered or embraced by Western communication theorists?

  4. A key idea in Afrocentric theorizing is Nommo. Find a song, speech, book, movie, TV show, cartoon, or other form of media that you believe exhibits Nommo, and explain how Nommo appears in it.

  5. The chapter's critique section concludes with the provocative idea that judging Afrocentricity by Western theory standards might be inappropriate. From your understanding of the theory, identify two possible standards for evaluating theory that might emerge from an Afrocentric perspective.

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Chapter 29—Feminist Standpoint Theory

  1. Assess your social location. What social group memberships influence it? Which are most influential? How would Harding and Wood measure your degree of strong objectivity? Do you agree or disagree with their assessment?
     
  2. For many scientists, “objectivity” is an absolute and binary term—in other words, someone is either objective or not. Discuss, then, what Wood and Harding mean when they speak of “strong objectivity” and “weak objectivity.”
     
  3. How would you explain the idea of intersectionality to someone who is unfamiliar with the term? What examples, images, metaphors, or narratives might you share in order to communicate the idea?
     
  4. Select one of the following theories from elsewhere in the textbook: Uncertainty reduction theory, social information processing theory, communication accommodation theory, cultivation theory. Each of these theories is an objective, scientific theory primarily developed by a Caucasian male. Discuss how the theory might have developed differently if it had been developed by a female scholar of color.
     
  5. What do postmodernists mean when they speak of an “incredulity toward metanarratives”? Do you share their incredulity? Why or why not?

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Chapter 30—Muted Group Theory

  1. Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks identify words for sexual promiscuity as an example of masculine bias in the English language. Identify one other word, phrase, or conversational topic that also demonstrates such bias.
     
  2. Many students have a very personal reaction to this theory because it brings to mind their own life experiences. If you feel comfortable doing so, write about a time when you have either been muted because of your group membership, or when you have muted someone else. How does muted group theory help you make sense of this experience?
     
  3. Some students react strongly to Kramarae’s criticism of men. In your essay, address the controversial question: Do men mean to mute women? How would Orbe, Wood, and/or Kramarae answer that question similarly or differently than you do? Whose explanation, if any, do you find most accurate?
     
  4. The chapter considers the role of the internet in muting. Identify one site or app where you think muting of women is common. What aspects of the site or app's design (or affordances; see the context collapse chapter) might facilitate muting? How might the site or app's culture or history encourage muting? If muting were to be reduced or eliminated, what would need to change?
     
  5. Kramarae and Treichler's feminist dictionary was published in 1992. Write new entries for two terms for feminine experience that have emerged since then: mansplaining and #metoo. Then, see if you can create one new word or phrase that voices feminine experience. 

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Chapter 31—Media Ecology

  1. The ear and the eye have been dominant senses in previous media ages. Why does McLuhan suggest touch is a new emphasis in the electronic age? What might this have to do with his term global village?
     
  2. Consider cell phones and reflect on how they change your symbolic environment. In other words, how would your family be different without them? Your school? Work? Society overall? The point here is not to critique the existence of cell phones, but rather to describe their environmental effects--effects that McLuhan thinks are most often invisible.
     
  3. The chapter suggests that the digital age might be distinct from the electronic age. In your answer, either explain why and how the digital age is indeed distinct, or why and how digital technology is merely a continuation of the electronic age.
     
  4. Choose the social media platform you use most often and ask the questions Postman would want us to ask: What do we gain from this technology? What do we lose? What are the moral implications of this bargain? Are the consequences more humanistic or antihumanistic? Do we as a society gain more than we lose, or do we lose more than we gain?
     
  5. More than almost any other theory in the book, McLuhan’s theory has generated both public notoriety and controversy. In your essay, side unambiguously with either McLuhan or his critics. Explain why the theory provides brilliant insight into the human condition or, alternatively, why the theory is very wrong.

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Chapter 32—Context Collapse

  1. Reflect on the experience of context collapse in your life. How often do you think about context collapse when using social media? The chapter notes that context collapse can create challenges for communicators. When has context collapse created challenges for you, if ever? And when, if ever, has context collapse been beneficial?

  2. Pick a particular social media platform. Describe it using the six affordances listed in the chapter, and explain how these affordances create (or inhibit) the possibility of context collapse.

  3. The chapter contrasts the invisible audience with the imagined audience. In what circumstances might these be very different? In what circumstances might they be very similar?

  4. Pick one of the specific tactics from tailoring performances and one from segmenting audiences. Compare and contrast each tactic regarding their benefits, drawbacks, motives for use, and possible outcomes.

  5. Identify a social media influencer and examine the content they produce. How do they engage in self-branding? Do you see any evidence of aspirational labor? Do you detect any strategies or tactics that the influencer uses to manage context collapse?

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Chapter 33—Semiotics

  1. Explain the relationship among a sign, a signifier, and a signified. Use a sign prevalent on your campus or in your town as an example.

  2. Think of your favorite recently-released movie. Using Barthes’ ideas, explain how the movie reinforces the dominant values of society.
     
  3. Unlike McLuhan, Barthes says little about the medium through which a sign is communicated. Write a dialogue between McLuhan and Barthes where they debate the question: Which is more important, the medium or the content of a message?
     
  4. Keeping his analysis of wrestling in mind, how might Barthes respond to the genre of reality television shows? How would he characterize the basic premises and plot elements that comprise the shows? How might he account for their popularity?

  5. Explain the difference between denotative and connotative sign systems. What is the connection between them? To really flesh this out, choose an example (other than the COVID-19 masks described in the chapter) to explain these sign systems.

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Chapter 34—Cultural Studies

  1. Visit an internet news site and read one of the prominently-featured articles. What stories are told in the article? Which stories, although relevant, are not told? How would Hall explain this?
     
  2. Think of the most recent movie you’ve watched.  In what ways does the movie function to perpetuate dominant cultural values? Do you see any ways that the movie functions to resist the ideological status quo?
     
  3. One of the sharpest critiques of cultural studies concerns whether scholarship should be done with the aim of promoting a specific political ideology. Explain why scholars in the socio-psychological, cybernetic, and/or rhetorical traditions might particularly have such concerns. Then, explain why you either agree with those concerns or why you dismiss them.
     
  4. Hall said that oppositional practice was the rarest form of decoding. Can you think of a time when you engaged in oppositional practice? Why did you decide to decode the media message in that way? If you have never engaged in oppositional practice, what would it take for you to do so?
     
  5. Would Hall's analysis of media in society be different if the news media were publicly owned? If so, how? What problem(s) would public ownership solve? What new problem(s) would it create?

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Chapter 35—Uses and Gratifications

  1. A chief assumption of the theory is that people can accurately report their reasons for media use. That assumption is also quite controversial. Explain whether you think this is a reasonable assumption or not.
     
  2. Think of the most recent TV show you’ve watched. Which of Rubin’s gratifications most motivated your viewing? Are there any motives for your viewing that don’t appear in the typology?
     
  3. Reflect on the idea of parasocial interaction. When have you, or someone you know, experienced it? When is parasocial interaction healthy, and when is it unhealthy?
     
  4. Contrast uses and gratifications theory with either Gerbner’s cultivation theory, McLuhan’smedia ecology, or Hall’s cultural studies. How do the two theories differ in their assumptions about media use? What common ground, if any, do they share? The best answers will draw connections to the metatheoretical traditions to which the theories belong.
     
  5. Compare Rubin’s typology, originally developed for describing TV viewing, with people’s use of social media (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.) today. Which gratifications apply to these sites? Which, if any, do not? What gratifications would need to be added to the list to comprehensively describe motivations for social media use?

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Chapter 36—Cultivation Theory

  1. For some sports fans, watching games and sports news comprises much of their viewing behavior. What kind of worldview might a heavy diet of sports TV cultivate?
     
  2. Think of your three favorite television shows. How much violence do they contain? Do the shows exert cultivation effects beyond violence? If so, what are they?
     
  3. The chapter mentions a quote from Scottish patriot Andrew Fletcher: “If a man were permitted to make all the ballads, he need not care who should make the laws of a nation.” Explain why this was a favorite quote for Gerbner.
     
  4. Today, most people do not watch TV through airwave broadcast or through cable; rather, they access video content through on-demand streaming services. Discuss the extent to which these technological changes necessitate revising cultivation theory.
     
  5. The institutional process analysis prong is crucial to cultivation theory's explanatory engine, but it has received the least amount of research. Why might that be? What would scholars need to do in order to engage in institutional process analysis? If you have read the chapter on Hall's cultural studies, how would this kind of research be similar to or different from that of cultural studies scholars?

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Chapter 37—Agenda-Setting Theory

  1. Both agenda-setting theory and cultivation theory address how the media shapes the beliefs of viewers and users. Compare and contrast these theories in terms of their emphases, their research methods, and basic assumptions. With the six criteria for a good objective theory in mind, which do you think is the superior theory?
     
  2. Throughout the chapter, Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks refer to examples of presidential elections from the 1960s on. Consider the most recent presidential election in your country. What do you remember about how the media framed each of the major candidates? Identify at least two different frames that could be adopted for each candidate.
     
  3. In response to the question, “Who sets the agenda for the agenda-setters?”, the chapter suggests several answers: gatekeepers, interest aggregations, powerful political figures, and public relations specialists, and partisan and/or specialized news sources. Which of these do you think wields the strongest agenda-setting power? What factors might alter that power balance?
     
  4. Find a copy of the most recent edition of your school’s newspaper or news website. What issues are emphasized? What issues are deemphasized? What issues do not appear at all? Why?

  5. The spread of fake news has become a major concern. Use the language and ideas of agenda-setting theory to explain why fake news is harmful and what could be done to reduce, slow, or stop it.

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Chapter 38—Common Threads in Comm Theories

  1. One of the uniting themes of the book is the continuum between objective and interpretive theories. How would an objective scholar answer the question, “What are these threads, really?” How would an interpretive scholar answer the question?
     
  2. Examine the theories you have studied in the course. Beyond the connections identified by Griffin, Ledbetter, and Sparks, identify one or two additional threads connecting the theories.
     
  3. At many universities, the communication theory course occurs early in the major or minor. If this is the case for you, as you look ahead to taking future communication courses, which threads are you most interested in exploring further? Why?
     
  4. The chapter reports a “cause for pause” associated with each thread. Which of these “causes” is the most serious critique? Why do you think this critique is worthy of particularly serious consideration?
     
  5. The placement of the theories on the threads isn’t the final word. Identify one theory you think is misplaced, and explain why you think that theory doesn’t really exemplify the thread.

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